--- title: R2 SQL description: A distributed SQL engine for R2 Data Catalog image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/index.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # R2 SQL Note R2 SQL is in **open beta**, and any developer with an [R2 subscription](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/pricing/) can start using it. Currently, outside of standard R2 storage and operations, you will not be billed for your use of R2 SQL. We will update [the pricing page](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2-sql/platform/pricing) and provide at least 30 days notice before enabling billing. Query Apache Iceberg tables managed by R2 Data Catalog using SQL. R2 SQL is Cloudflare's serverless, distributed, analytics query engine for querying [Apache Iceberg ↗](https://iceberg.apache.org/) tables stored in [R2 Data Catalog](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/data-catalog/). R2 SQL is designed to efficiently query large amounts of data by automatically utilizing file pruning, Cloudflare's distributed compute, and R2 object storage. Terminal window ``` ❯ npx wrangler r2 sql query "3373912de3f5202317188ae01300bd6_data-catalog" \ "SELECT * FROM default.transactions LIMIT 10" ⛅️ wrangler 4.38.0 ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── ▲ [WARNING] 🚧 `wrangler r2 sql query` is an open-beta command. Please report any issues to https://github.com/cloudflare/workers-sdk/issues/new/choose ┌─────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────────────┬─────────┬──────────┬──────────────────────────────────┬───────────────┬───────────────────┬──────────┐ │ __ingest_ts │ transaction_id │ user_id │ amount │ transaction_timestamp │ location │ merchant_category │ is_fraud │ ├─────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────────────────────┼─────────┼──────────┼──────────────────────────────────┼───────────────┼───────────────────┼──────────┤ │ 2025-09-20T22:30:11.872554Z │ fdc1beed-157c-4d2d-90cf-630fdea58051 │ 1679 │ 13241.59 │ 2025-09-20T02:23:04.269988+00:00 │ NEW_YORK │ RESTAURANT │ false │ ├─────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────────────────────┼─────────┼──────────┼──────────────────────────────────┼───────────────┼───────────────────┼──────────┤ │ 2025-09-20T22:30:11.724378Z │ ea7ef106-8284-4d08-9348-ad33989b6381 │ 1279 │ 17615.79 │ 2025-09-20T02:23:04.271090+00:00 │ MIAMI │ GAS_STATION │ true │ ├─────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────────────────────┼─────────┼──────────┼──────────────────────────────────┼───────────────┼───────────────────┼──────────┤ │ 2025-09-20T22:30:11.724330Z │ afcdee4d-5c71-42be-97ec-e282b6937a8c │ 1843 │ 7311.65 │ 2025-09-20T06:23:04.267890+00:00 │ SEATTLE │ GROCERY │ true │ ├─────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────────────────────┼─────────┼──────────┼──────────────────────────────────┼───────────────┼───────────────────┼──────────┤ │ 2025-09-20T22:30:11.657007Z │ b99d14e0-dbe0-49bc-a417-0ee57f8bed99 │ 1976 │ 15228.21 │ 2025-09-16T23:23:04.269426+00:00 │ NEW_YORK │ RETAIL │ false │ ├─────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────────────────────┼─────────┼──────────┼──────────────────────────────────┼───────────────┼───────────────────┼──────────┤ │ 2025-09-20T22:30:11.656992Z │ 712cd094-ad4c-4d24-819a-0d3daaaceea1 │ 1184 │ 7570.89 │ 2025-09-20T00:23:04.269163+00:00 │ LOS_ANGELES │ RESTAURANT │ true │ ├─────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────────────────────┼─────────┼──────────┼──────────────────────────────────┼───────────────┼───────────────────┼──────────┤ │ 2025-09-20T22:30:11.656912Z │ b5a1aab3-676d-4492-92b8-aabcde6db261 │ 1196 │ 46611.25 │ 2025-09-20T16:23:04.268693+00:00 │ NEW_YORK │ RETAIL │ true │ ├─────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────────────────────┼─────────┼──────────┼──────────────────────────────────┼───────────────┼───────────────────┼──────────┤ │ 2025-09-20T22:30:11.613740Z │ 432d3976-8d89-4813-9099-ea2afa2c0e70 │ 1720 │ 21547.9 │ 2025-09-20T05:23:04.273681+00:00 │ SAN FRANCISCO │ GROCERY │ true │ ├─────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────────────────────┼─────────┼──────────┼──────────────────────────────────┼───────────────┼───────────────────┼──────────┤ │ 2025-09-20T22:30:11.532068Z │ 25e0b851-3092-4ade-842f-e3189e07d4ee │ 1562 │ 29311.54 │ 2025-09-20T05:23:04.277405+00:00 │ NEW_YORK │ RETAIL │ false │ ├─────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────────────────────┼─────────┼──────────┼──────────────────────────────────┼───────────────┼───────────────────┼──────────┤ │ 2025-09-20T22:30:11.526037Z │ 8001746d-05fe-42fe-a189-40caf81d7aa2 │ 1817 │ 15976.5 │ 2025-09-15T16:23:04.266632+00:00 │ SEATTLE │ RESTAURANT │ true │ └─────────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────────────────┴─────────┴──────────┴──────────────────────────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────────┴──────────┘ Read 11.3 kB across 4 files from R2 On average, 3.36 kB / s ``` Create an end-to-end data pipeline by following [this step by step guide](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2-sql/get-started/), which shows you how to stream events into an Apache Iceberg table and query it with R2 SQL. ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}}]} ``` --- --- title: Getting started description: Create your first pipeline to ingest streaming data and write to R2 Data Catalog as an Apache Iceberg table. image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/get-started.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # Getting started This guide will instruct you through: * Creating your first [R2 bucket](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/buckets/) and enabling its [data catalog](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/data-catalog/). * Creating an [API token](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/api/tokens/) needed for pipelines to authenticate with your data catalog. * Creating your first pipeline with a simple ecommerce schema that writes to an [Apache Iceberg ↗](https://iceberg.apache.org/) table managed by R2 Data Catalog. * Sending sample ecommerce data via HTTP endpoint. * Validating data in your bucket and querying it with R2 SQL. ## Prerequisites 1. Sign up for a [Cloudflare account ↗](https://dash.cloudflare.com/sign-up/workers-and-pages). 2. Install [Node.js ↗](https://docs.npmjs.com/downloading-and-installing-node-js-and-npm). Node.js version manager Use a Node version manager like [Volta ↗](https://volta.sh/) or [nvm ↗](https://github.com/nvm-sh/nvm) to avoid permission issues and change Node.js versions. [Wrangler](https://developers.cloudflare.com/workers/wrangler/install-and-update/), discussed later in this guide, requires a Node version of `16.17.0` or later. ## 1\. Create an R2 bucket * [ Wrangler CLI ](#tab-panel-5731) * [ Dashboard ](#tab-panel-5732) 1. If not already logged in, run: ``` npx wrangler login ``` 2. Create an R2 bucket: ``` npx wrangler r2 bucket create pipelines-tutorial ``` 1. In the Cloudflare dashboard, go to the **R2 object storage** page. [ Go to **Overview** ](https://dash.cloudflare.com/?to=/:account/r2/overview) 2. Select **Create bucket**. 3. Enter the bucket name: pipelines-tutorial 4. Select **Create bucket**. ## 2\. Enable R2 Data Catalog * [ Wrangler CLI ](#tab-panel-5733) * [ Dashboard ](#tab-panel-5734) Enable the catalog on your R2 bucket: ``` npx wrangler r2 bucket catalog enable pipelines-tutorial ``` When you run this command, take note of the "Warehouse" and "Catalog URI". You will need these later. 1. In the Cloudflare dashboard, go to the **R2 object storage** page. [ Go to **Overview** ](https://dash.cloudflare.com/?to=/:account/r2/overview) 2. Select the bucket: pipelines-tutorial. 3. Switch to the **Settings** tab, scroll down to **R2 Data Catalog**, and select **Enable**. 4. Once enabled, note the **Catalog URI** and **Warehouse name**. ## 3\. Create an API token Pipelines must authenticate to R2 Data Catalog with an [R2 API token](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/api/tokens/) that has catalog and R2 permissions. 1. In the Cloudflare dashboard, go to the **R2 object storage** page. [ Go to **Overview** ](https://dash.cloudflare.com/?to=/:account/r2/overview) 2. Select **Manage API tokens**. 3. Select **Create Account API token**. 4. Give your API token a name. 5. Under **Permissions**, choose the **Admin Read & Write** permission. 6. Select **Create Account API Token**. 7. Note the **Token value**. Note This token also includes the R2 SQL Read permission, which allows you to query your data with R2 SQL. ## 4\. Create a pipeline * [ Wrangler CLI ](#tab-panel-5735) * [ Dashboard ](#tab-panel-5736) First, create a schema file that defines your ecommerce data structure: **Create `schema.json`:** ``` { "fields": [ { "name": "user_id", "type": "string", "required": true }, { "name": "event_type", "type": "string", "required": true }, { "name": "product_id", "type": "string", "required": false }, { "name": "amount", "type": "float64", "required": false } ] } ``` Use the interactive setup to create a pipeline that writes to R2 Data Catalog: Terminal window ``` npx wrangler pipelines setup ``` Follow the prompts: 1. **Pipeline name**: Enter `ecommerce` 2. **Stream configuration**: * Enable HTTP endpoint: `yes` * Require authentication: `no` (for simplicity) * Configure custom CORS origins: `no` * Schema definition: `Load from file` * Schema file path: `schema.json` (or your file path) 3. **Sink configuration**: * Destination type: `Data Catalog Table` * R2 bucket name: `pipelines-tutorial` * Namespace: `default` * Table name: `ecommerce` * Catalog API token: Enter your token from step 3 * Compression: `zstd` * Roll file when size reaches (MB): `100` * Roll file when time reaches (seconds): `10` (for faster data visibility in this tutorial) 4. **SQL transformation**: Choose `Use simple ingestion query` to use: ``` INSERT INTO ecommerce_sink SELECT * FROM ecommerce_stream ``` After setup completes, note the HTTP endpoint URL displayed in the final output. 1. In the Cloudflare dashboard, go to **Pipelines** \> **Pipelines**. [ Go to **Pipelines** ](https://dash.cloudflare.com/?to=/:account/pipelines/overview) 2. Select **Create Pipeline**. 3. **Connect to a Stream**: * Pipeline name: `ecommerce` * Enable HTTP endpoint for sending data: Enabled * HTTP authentication: Disabled (default) * Select **Next** 4. **Define Input Schema**: * Select **JSON editor** * Copy in the schema: ``` { "fields": [ { "name": "user_id", "type": "string", "required": true }, { "name": "event_type", "type": "string", "required": true }, { "name": "product_id", "type": "string", "required": false }, { "name": "amount", "type": "f64", "required": false } ] } ``` * Select **Next** 5. **Define Sink**: * Select your R2 bucket: `pipelines-tutorial` * Storage type: **R2 Data Catalog** * Namespace: `default` * Table name: `ecommerce` * **Advanced Settings**: Change **Maximum Time Interval** to `10 seconds` * Select **Next** 6. **Credentials**: * Disable **Automatically create an Account API token for your sink** * Enter **Catalog Token** from step 3 * Select **Next** 7. **Pipeline Definition**: * Leave the default SQL query: ``` INSERT INTO ecommerce_sink SELECT * FROM ecommerce_stream; ``` * Select **Create Pipeline** 8. After pipeline creation, note the **Stream ID** for the next step. ## 5\. Send sample data Send ecommerce events to your pipeline's HTTP endpoint: Terminal window ``` curl -X POST https://{stream-id}.ingest.cloudflare.com \ -H "Content-Type: application/json" \ -d '[ { "user_id": "user_12345", "event_type": "purchase", "product_id": "widget-001", "amount": 29.99 }, { "user_id": "user_67890", "event_type": "view_product", "product_id": "widget-002" }, { "user_id": "user_12345", "event_type": "add_to_cart", "product_id": "widget-003", "amount": 15.50 } ]' ``` Replace `{stream-id}` with your actual stream endpoint from the pipeline setup. ## 6\. Validate data in your bucket 1. In the Cloudflare dashboard, go to the **R2 object storage** page. 2. Select your bucket: `pipelines-tutorial`. 3. You should see Iceberg metadata files and data files created by your pipeline. Note: If you aren't seeing any files in your bucket, try waiting a couple of minutes and trying again. 4. The data is organized in the Apache Iceberg format with metadata tracking table versions. ## 7\. Query your data using R2 SQL Set up your environment to use R2 SQL: Terminal window ``` export WRANGLER_R2_SQL_AUTH_TOKEN=YOUR_API_TOKEN ``` Or create a `.env` file with: ``` WRANGLER_R2_SQL_AUTH_TOKEN=YOUR_API_TOKEN ``` Where `YOUR_API_TOKEN` is the token you created in step 3\. For more information on setting environment variables, refer to [Wrangler system environment variables](https://developers.cloudflare.com/workers/wrangler/system-environment-variables/). Query your data: Terminal window ``` npx wrangler r2 sql query "YOUR_WAREHOUSE_NAME" " SELECT user_id, event_type, product_id, amount FROM default.ecommerce WHERE event_type = 'purchase' LIMIT 10" ``` Replace `YOUR_WAREHOUSE_NAME` with the warehouse name from step 2. You can also query this table with any engine that supports Apache Iceberg. To learn more about connecting other engines to R2 Data Catalog, refer to [Connect to Iceberg engines](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/data-catalog/config-examples/). ## Learn more [ Managing R2 Data Catalogs ](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/data-catalog/manage-catalogs/) Enable or disable R2 Data Catalog on your bucket, retrieve configuration details, and authenticate your Iceberg engine. [ Try another example ](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2-sql/tutorials/end-to-end-pipeline) Detailed tutorial for setting up a simple fraud detection data pipeline, and generate events for it in Python. [ Pipelines ](https://developers.cloudflare.com/pipelines/) Understand SQL transformations and pipeline configuration. ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/get-started/","name":"Getting started"}}]} ``` --- --- title: Query data description: Understand how to query data with R2 SQL image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/query-data.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # Query data Query [Apache Iceberg ↗](https://iceberg.apache.org/) tables managed by [R2 Data Catalog](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/data-catalog/). R2 SQL queries can be made via [Wrangler](https://developers.cloudflare.com/workers/wrangler/) or HTTP API. ## Get your warehouse name To query data with R2 SQL, you'll need your warehouse name associated with your [catalog](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/data-catalog/manage-catalogs/). To retrieve it, you can run the [r2 bucket catalog get command](https://developers.cloudflare.com/workers/wrangler/commands/r2/#r2-bucket-catalog-get): Terminal window ``` npx wrangler r2 bucket catalog get ``` Alternatively, you can find it in the dashboard by going to the **R2 object storage** page, selecting the bucket, switching to the **Settings** tab, scrolling to **R2 Data Catalog**, and finding **Warehouse name**. ## Query via Wrangler To begin, install [npm ↗](https://docs.npmjs.com/getting-started). Then [install Wrangler, the Developer Platform CLI](https://developers.cloudflare.com/workers/wrangler/install-and-update/). Wrangler needs an API token with permissions to access R2 Data Catalog, R2 storage, and R2 SQL to execute queries. The `r2 sql query` command looks for the token in the `WRANGLER_R2_SQL_AUTH_TOKEN` environment variable. Set up your environment: Terminal window ``` export WRANGLER_R2_SQL_AUTH_TOKEN=YOUR_API_TOKEN ``` Or create a `.env` file with: ``` WRANGLER_R2_SQL_AUTH_TOKEN=YOUR_API_TOKEN ``` Where `YOUR_API_TOKEN` is the token you created with the [required permissions](#authentication). For more information on setting environment variables, refer to [Wrangler system environment variables](https://developers.cloudflare.com/workers/wrangler/system-environment-variables/). To run a SQL query, run the [r2 sql query command](https://developers.cloudflare.com/workers/wrangler/commands/r2/#r2-sql-query): Terminal window ``` npx wrangler r2 sql query "SELECT * FROM namespace.table_name limit 10;" ``` For a full list of supported SQL commands, refer to the [R2 SQL reference](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2-sql/sql-reference/). ## Query via API Below is an example of using R2 SQL via the REST endpoint: Terminal window ``` curl -X POST \ "https://api.sql.cloudflarestorage.com/api/v1/accounts/{ACCOUNT_ID}/r2-sql/query/{BUCKET_NAME}" \ -H "Authorization: Bearer ${WRANGLER_R2_SQL_AUTH_TOKEN}" \ -H "Content-Type: application/json" \ -d '{ "query": "SELECT * FROM namespace.table_name limit 10;" }' ``` The API requires an API token with the appropriate permissions in the Authorization header. Refer to [Authentication](#authentication) for details on creating a token. For a full list of supported SQL commands, refer to the [R2 SQL reference](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2-sql/sql-reference/). ## Authentication To query data with R2 SQL, you must provide a Cloudflare API token with R2 SQL, R2 Data Catalog, and R2 storage permissions. R2 SQL requires these permissions to access catalog metadata and read the underlying data files stored in R2. ### Create API token in the dashboard Create an [R2 API token](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/api/tokens/#permissions) with the following permissions: * Access to R2 Data Catalog (read-only) * Access to R2 storage (Admin read/write) * Access to R2 SQL (read-only) Use this token value for the `WRANGLER_R2_SQL_AUTH_TOKEN` environment variable when querying with Wrangler, or in the Authorization header when using the REST API. ### Create API token via API To create an API token programmatically for use with R2 SQL, you'll need to specify R2 SQL, R2 Data Catalog, and R2 storage permission groups in your [Access Policy](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/api/tokens/#access-policy). #### Example Access Policy ``` [ { "id": "f267e341f3dd4697bd3b9f71dd96247f", "effect": "allow", "resources": { "com.cloudflare.edge.r2.bucket.4793d734c0b8e484dfc37ec392b5fa8a_default_my-bucket": "*", "com.cloudflare.edge.r2.bucket.4793d734c0b8e484dfc37ec392b5fa8a_eu_my-eu-bucket": "*" }, "permission_groups": [ { "id": "f45430d92e2b4a6cb9f94f2594c141b8", "name": "Workers R2 SQL Read" }, { "id": "d229766a2f7f4d299f20eaa8c9b1fde9", "name": "Workers R2 Data Catalog Write" }, { "id": "bf7481a1826f439697cb59a20b22293e", "name": "Workers R2 Storage Write" } ] } ] ``` To learn more about how to create API tokens for R2 SQL using the API, including required permission groups and usage examples, refer to the [Create API tokens via API documentation](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/api/tokens/#create-api-tokens-via-api). ## Additional resources [ Manage R2 Data Catalogs ](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/data-catalog/manage-catalogs/) Enable or disable R2 Data Catalog on your bucket, retrieve configuration details, and authenticate your Iceberg engine. [ Build an end to end data pipeline ](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2-sql/tutorials/end-to-end-pipeline) Detailed tutorial for setting up a simple fraud detection data pipeline, and generate events for it in Python. ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/query-data/","name":"Query data"}}]} ``` --- --- title: SQL reference description: Comprehensive reference for SQL syntax, functions, and data types supported in R2 SQL. image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) ### Tags [ SQL ](https://developers.cloudflare.com/search/?tags=SQL) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/sql-reference/index.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # SQL reference Note R2 SQL is in public beta. Supported SQL grammar may change over time. R2 SQL is Cloudflare's serverless, distributed, analytics query engine for querying [Apache Iceberg ↗](https://iceberg.apache.org/) tables stored in [R2 Data Catalog](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/data-catalog/). This page documents the supported SQL syntax. --- ## Query syntax ``` SELECT column_list | expression | aggregation_function FROM namespace_name.table_name [WHERE conditions] [GROUP BY column_list] [HAVING conditions] [ORDER BY expression [ASC | DESC]] [LIMIT number] ``` --- ## Schema discovery commands ### SHOW DATABASES Lists all available namespaces. ``` SHOW DATABASES; ``` ### SHOW NAMESPACES Alias for `SHOW DATABASES`. Lists all available namespaces. ``` SHOW NAMESPACES; ``` ### SHOW TABLES Lists all tables within a specific namespace. ``` SHOW TABLES IN namespace_name; ``` ### DESCRIBE Describes the structure of a table, showing column names and data types. ``` DESCRIBE namespace_name.table_name; ``` --- ## SELECT clause ### Syntax ``` SELECT column_specification [, column_specification, ...] ``` ### Column specification * **Column name**: `column_name` * **All columns**: `*` * **Qualified wildcard**: `table_name.*` * **Column alias**: `column_name AS alias` * **Expressions**: arithmetic, function calls, CASE expressions, and casts ### Examples ``` SELECT * FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 10 SELECT customer_id, region, total_amount FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 10 SELECT region, total_amount * 1.1 AS total_with_tax FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 10 ``` --- ## Common table expressions (CTEs) CTEs let you define named temporary result sets using `WITH` that you can reference in the main query. All CTEs must reference the same single table. ### Syntax ``` WITH cte_name AS ( SELECT ... FROM namespace_name.table_name [WHERE ...] ) SELECT ... FROM cte_name ``` ### Chained CTEs A CTE can reference a previously defined CTE. All CTEs in the chain must derive from the same underlying table. ``` WITH filtered AS ( SELECT customer_id, department, total_amount FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount > 0 ), summary AS ( SELECT department, COUNT(*) AS order_count, round(AVG(total_amount), 2) AS avg_amount FROM filtered GROUP BY department ) SELECT * FROM summary WHERE order_count > 100 ORDER BY avg_amount DESC ``` Note CTEs must reference a single table. Multi-table CTEs, JOINs within CTEs, and cross-table references are not supported. --- ## FROM clause ### Syntax ``` SELECT * FROM namespace_name.table_name ``` R2 SQL queries reference exactly one table, specified as `namespace_name.table_name`. --- ## WHERE clause ### Syntax ``` SELECT * FROM namespace_name.table_name WHERE condition [AND | OR condition ...] ``` ### Conditions #### Comparison operators `=`, `!=`, `<>`, `<`, `>`, `<=`, `>=` #### Null checks * `column_name IS NULL` * `column_name IS NOT NULL` #### Boolean checks * `IS TRUE`, `IS FALSE`, `IS NOT TRUE`, `IS NOT FALSE` * `IS UNKNOWN`, `IS NOT UNKNOWN` #### Range * `column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2` * `column_name NOT BETWEEN value1 AND value2` #### List membership * `column_name IN ('value1', 'value2')` * `column_name NOT IN ('value1', 'value2')` #### Pattern matching * `column_name LIKE 'pattern'` * `column_name NOT LIKE 'pattern'` * `column_name ILIKE 'pattern'` (case-insensitive) * `column_name NOT ILIKE 'pattern'` * `column_name SIMILAR TO 'regex_pattern'` #### Logical operators * `AND` * `OR` * `NOT` ### Examples ``` SELECT * FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE timestamp BETWEEN '2025-09-24T01:00:00Z' AND '2025-09-25T01:00:00Z' SELECT * FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE status = 200 AND response_time > 1000 SELECT * FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE (region = 'North' OR region = 'South') AND total_amount IS NOT NULL SELECT * FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department ILIKE '%eng%' ``` --- ## GROUP BY clause ### Syntax ``` SELECT column_list, aggregation_function(column) FROM namespace_name.table_name [WHERE conditions] GROUP BY column_list ``` ### Examples ``` SELECT department, COUNT(*) AS dept_count FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY department SELECT department, category, SUM(total_amount) AS total FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY department, category ``` --- ## HAVING clause ### Syntax ``` SELECT column_list, aggregation_function(column) AS alias FROM namespace_name.table_name GROUP BY column_list HAVING aggregation_function(column) comparison_operator value ``` ### Examples ``` SELECT department, COUNT(*) AS dept_count FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY department HAVING COUNT(*) > 1000 SELECT region, SUM(total_amount) AS total FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY region HAVING SUM(total_amount) > 1000000 ``` --- ## ORDER BY clause ### Syntax ``` ORDER BY expression [ASC | DESC] [, expression [ASC | DESC], ...] ``` * **ASC**: Ascending order (default) * **DESC**: Descending order * Multi-column ordering is supported ### Examples ``` SELECT customer_id, total_amount FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL ORDER BY total_amount DESC LIMIT 50 SELECT department, COUNT(*) AS dept_count FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY department ORDER BY dept_count DESC, department ASC ``` --- ## LIMIT clause ### Syntax ``` LIMIT number ``` * **Type**: Integer only * **Default**: 500 ### Examples ``` SELECT * FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 100 ``` --- ## EXPLAIN Returns the execution plan for a query without running it. ``` EXPLAIN SELECT department, COUNT(*) AS dept_count FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL GROUP BY department; ``` --- ## Expressions Expressions can be used in `SELECT`, `WHERE`, `GROUP BY`, `HAVING`, and `ORDER BY` clauses. ### Literals ``` SELECT 42 AS int_val, 3.14 AS float_val, 'hello' AS str_val, TRUE AS bool_val, NULL AS null_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### Arithmetic operators `+`, `-`, `*`, `/`, `%` ``` SELECT customer_id, total_amount * 1.1 AS total_with_tax, total_amount % 10 AS remainder FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### String concatenation ``` SELECT customer_id || ' - ' || region AS label FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 5 ``` ### CASE expressions Searched form: ``` SELECT customer_id, CASE WHEN total_amount > 1000 THEN 'high' WHEN total_amount > 100 THEN 'medium' ELSE 'low' END AS tier FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 10 ``` Simple form: ``` SELECT customer_id, CASE region WHEN 'North' THEN 'N' WHEN 'South' THEN 'S' ELSE 'Other' END AS region_code FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 10 ``` ### Type casting ``` -- CAST SELECT CAST(total_amount AS INT) AS amount_int FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 5 -- TRY_CAST (returns NULL on failure instead of error) SELECT TRY_CAST(customer_id AS INT) AS id_int FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 5 -- Shorthand (::) SELECT total_amount::INT AS amount_int FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 5 ``` ### EXTRACT ``` SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR FROM timestamp) AS yr, EXTRACT(MONTH FROM timestamp) AS mo, EXTRACT(DAY FROM timestamp) AS dy FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` --- ## Data type reference | Type | Description | Example Values | | --------- | --------------- | ---------------------------- | | integer | Whole numbers | 1, 42, \-10, 0 | | float | Decimal numbers | 1.5, 3.14, \-2.7, 0.0 | | string | Text values | 'hello', 'GET', '2024-01-01' | | boolean | Boolean values | true, false | | timestamp | RFC3339 | '2025-09-24T01:00:00Z' | | date | Date values | '2025-09-24' | | struct | Named fields | struct\_col\['field\_name'\] | | array | Ordered list | array\_col\[1\] (1-indexed) | | map | Key-value pairs | map\_keys(map\_col) | --- ## Operator precedence 1. **Comparison operators**: `=`, `!=`, `<`, `<=`, `>`, `>=`, `LIKE`, `BETWEEN`, `IS NULL`, `IS NOT NULL` 2. **AND** (higher precedence) 3. **OR** (lower precedence) Use parentheses to override default precedence: ``` SELECT * FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE (status = 404 OR status = 500) AND region = 'North' ``` --- ## Complete query examples ### Basic query ``` SELECT * FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE timestamp BETWEEN '2025-09-24T01:00:00Z' AND '2025-09-25T01:00:00Z' LIMIT 100 ``` ### Filtered query with sorting ``` SELECT customer_id, timestamp, status, total_amount FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE status >= 400 AND total_amount > 5000 ORDER BY total_amount DESC LIMIT 50 ``` ### Aggregation with HAVING ``` SELECT region, COUNT(*) AS region_count, AVG(total_amount) AS avg_amount FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE status = 'completed' GROUP BY region HAVING COUNT(*) > 1000 ORDER BY avg_amount DESC LIMIT 20 ``` ### Conditional categorization ``` SELECT customer_id, CASE WHEN total_amount >= 1000 THEN 'Premium' WHEN total_amount >= 100 THEN 'Standard' ELSE 'Basic' END AS tier, total_amount FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL ORDER BY total_amount DESC LIMIT 20 ``` ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/sql-reference/","name":"SQL reference"}}]} ``` --- --- title: Aggregate functions description: Reference for all 33 aggregate functions supported in R2 SQL, organized by category. image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) ### Tags [ SQL ](https://developers.cloudflare.com/search/?tags=SQL) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/sql-reference/aggregate-functions.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # Aggregate functions Aggregate functions collapse multiple rows into a single result. They are used with `GROUP BY` to compute summaries per group, or without `GROUP BY` to compute a single result across all rows. Note The following aggregates are not supported: `PERCENTILE_CONT`, `MEDIAN`, `ARRAY_AGG`, `STRING_AGG`, and any `func(DISTINCT ...)`. Use the approximate alternatives where available. --- ## Basic aggregates ### COUNT Counts rows. `COUNT(*)` counts all rows. `COUNT(column)` counts non-NULL values. ``` SELECT COUNT(*) AS total_rows FROM my_namespace.sales_data SELECT department, COUNT(*) AS dept_count FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY department ORDER BY dept_count DESC ``` ### SUM Returns the sum of values in a column. ``` SELECT SUM(total_amount) AS grand_total FROM my_namespace.sales_data SELECT department, SUM(total_amount) AS dept_total FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY department ORDER BY dept_total DESC ``` ### AVG Returns the average of values in a column. Alias: `mean`. ``` SELECT AVG(total_amount) AS avg_amount FROM my_namespace.sales_data SELECT department, AVG(total_amount) AS avg_amount FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY department ORDER BY avg_amount DESC ``` ### MIN Returns the minimum value. Works on numeric and string columns. ``` SELECT MIN(total_amount) AS min_amount, MIN(customer_id) AS first_customer FROM my_namespace.sales_data SELECT department, MIN(total_amount) AS min_amount FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY department ``` ### MAX Returns the maximum value. Works on numeric and string columns. ``` SELECT MAX(total_amount) AS max_amount, MAX(customer_id) AS last_customer FROM my_namespace.sales_data SELECT department, MAX(total_amount) AS max_amount FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY department ``` --- ## Approximate aggregates Approximate aggregation functions produce statistically estimated results while using significantly less memory and compute than their exact counterparts. Use them when analyzing large datasets and an approximate result is acceptable. ### approx\_percentile\_cont Returns the approximate value at a given percentile using a T-Digest algorithm. The percentile parameter must be between `0.0` and `1.0` inclusive. ``` SELECT approx_percentile_cont(total_amount, 0.5) AS median, approx_percentile_cont(total_amount, 0.95) AS p95 FROM my_namespace.sales_data SELECT department, approx_percentile_cont(total_amount, 0.5) AS median FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY department ORDER BY median DESC ``` ### approx\_percentile\_cont\_with\_weight Returns the approximate weighted percentile. Rows are weighted by the `weight` column. ``` SELECT approx_percentile_cont_with_weight(unit_price, quantity, 0.5) AS weighted_median FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE unit_price IS NOT NULL AND quantity IS NOT NULL ``` ### approx\_median Returns the approximate median. Equivalent to `approx_percentile_cont(column, 0.5)`. ``` SELECT approx_median(total_amount) AS median_amount FROM my_namespace.sales_data SELECT department, approx_median(total_amount) AS median FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY department ``` ### approx\_distinct Returns the approximate count of distinct values using HyperLogLog. ``` SELECT approx_distinct(customer_id) AS unique_customers FROM my_namespace.sales_data SELECT department, approx_distinct(customer_id) AS unique_customers FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY department ``` ### approx\_top\_k Returns the _k_ most frequent values with their approximate counts. ``` SELECT approx_top_k(department, 5) AS top_departments FROM my_namespace.sales_data ``` --- ## Statistical aggregates ### var / var\_samp Returns the sample variance. ``` SELECT var(total_amount) AS variance FROM my_namespace.sales_data SELECT department, var(total_amount) AS variance FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY department ``` ### var\_pop Returns the population variance. ``` SELECT var_pop(total_amount) AS pop_variance FROM my_namespace.sales_data ``` ### stddev / stddev\_samp Returns the sample standard deviation. ``` SELECT stddev(total_amount) AS std_dev FROM my_namespace.sales_data SELECT department, stddev(total_amount) AS std_dev FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY department ``` ### stddev\_pop Returns the population standard deviation. ``` SELECT stddev_pop(total_amount) AS pop_std_dev FROM my_namespace.sales_data ``` ### covar\_samp Returns the sample covariance. Alias: `covar`. ``` SELECT covar_samp(total_amount, CAST(quantity AS DOUBLE)) AS covariance FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL AND quantity IS NOT NULL ``` ### covar\_pop Returns the population covariance. ``` SELECT covar_pop(total_amount, CAST(quantity AS DOUBLE)) AS pop_covariance FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL AND quantity IS NOT NULL ``` ### corr Returns the Pearson correlation coefficient between two columns. ``` SELECT corr(total_amount, CAST(quantity AS DOUBLE)) AS correlation FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL AND quantity IS NOT NULL ``` ### regr\_slope Returns the slope of the linear regression line. ``` SELECT regr_slope(total_amount, CAST(quantity AS DOUBLE)) AS slope FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL AND quantity IS NOT NULL ``` ### regr\_intercept Returns the y-intercept of the linear regression line. ``` SELECT regr_intercept(total_amount, CAST(quantity AS DOUBLE)) AS intercept FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL AND quantity IS NOT NULL ``` ### regr\_count Returns the count of non-NULL pairs. ``` SELECT regr_count(total_amount, CAST(quantity AS DOUBLE)) AS pair_count FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL AND quantity IS NOT NULL ``` ### regr\_r2 Returns the coefficient of determination (R-squared). ``` SELECT regr_r2(total_amount, CAST(quantity AS DOUBLE)) AS r_squared FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL AND quantity IS NOT NULL ``` ### regr\_avgx Returns the average of the independent variable (x) for non-NULL pairs. ``` SELECT regr_avgx(total_amount, CAST(quantity AS DOUBLE)) AS avg_qty FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL AND quantity IS NOT NULL ``` ### regr\_avgy Returns the average of the dependent variable (y) for non-NULL pairs. ``` SELECT regr_avgy(total_amount, CAST(quantity AS DOUBLE)) AS avg_amount FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL AND quantity IS NOT NULL ``` ### regr\_sxx Returns the sum of squares of the independent variable. ``` SELECT regr_sxx(total_amount, CAST(quantity AS DOUBLE)) AS sxx FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL AND quantity IS NOT NULL ``` ### regr\_syy Returns the sum of squares of the dependent variable. ``` SELECT regr_syy(total_amount, CAST(quantity AS DOUBLE)) AS syy FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL AND quantity IS NOT NULL ``` ### regr\_sxy Returns the sum of products of the paired variables. ``` SELECT regr_sxy(total_amount, CAST(quantity AS DOUBLE)) AS sxy FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL AND quantity IS NOT NULL ``` --- ## Bitwise aggregates ### bit\_and Returns the bitwise AND of all values in a group. ``` SELECT department, bit_and(quantity) AS and_result FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE quantity IS NOT NULL GROUP BY department ``` ### bit\_or Returns the bitwise OR of all values in a group. ``` SELECT department, bit_or(quantity) AS or_result FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE quantity IS NOT NULL GROUP BY department ``` ### bit\_xor Returns the bitwise XOR of all values in a group. ``` SELECT department, bit_xor(quantity) AS xor_result FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE quantity IS NOT NULL GROUP BY department ``` --- ## Boolean aggregates ### bool\_and Returns true if all values in a group are true. ``` SELECT department, bool_and(is_completed) AS all_completed FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE is_completed IS NOT NULL GROUP BY department ``` ### bool\_or Returns true if any value in a group is true. ``` SELECT department, bool_or(is_completed) AS any_completed FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE is_completed IS NOT NULL GROUP BY department ``` --- ## Positional aggregates ### first\_value Returns the first value in a group according to the specified ordering. ``` SELECT department, first_value(customer_id ORDER BY total_amount ASC) AS lowest_spender FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL GROUP BY department ``` ### last\_value Returns the last value in a group according to the specified ordering. ``` SELECT department, last_value(customer_id ORDER BY total_amount ASC) AS highest_spender FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL GROUP BY department ``` ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/sql-reference/","name":"SQL reference"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/","name":"Aggregate functions"}}]} ``` --- --- title: Complex types description: Reference for querying struct, array, and map column types in R2 SQL. image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) ### Tags [ SQL ](https://developers.cloudflare.com/search/?tags=SQL) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/sql-reference/complex-types.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # Complex types R2 SQL supports querying struct, array, and map column types stored in Iceberg tables. This page covers access patterns, supported functions, and examples for each type. --- ## Structs Struct columns contain named fields. Access fields using bracket notation or the `get_field()` function. ### Bracket notation ``` SELECT pricing['price'] AS price, pricing['discount_percent'] AS discount FROM my_namespace.products LIMIT 5 ``` ### get\_field function ``` SELECT get_field(pricing, 'price') AS price, get_field(pricing, 'discount_percent') AS discount FROM my_namespace.products LIMIT 5 ``` ### Struct fields in WHERE ``` SELECT customer_id, pricing['price'] AS price FROM my_namespace.products WHERE pricing['price'] > 50 LIMIT 10 ``` ### Struct fields in ORDER BY ``` SELECT customer_id, pricing['price'] AS price FROM my_namespace.products WHERE pricing['price'] IS NOT NULL ORDER BY pricing['price'] DESC LIMIT 10 ``` ### Struct fields in GROUP BY ``` SELECT platforms['windows'] AS windows_support, COUNT(*) AS product_count, AVG(pricing['price']) AS avg_price FROM my_namespace.products WHERE pricing['price'] IS NOT NULL GROUP BY platforms['windows'] ``` ### Creating structs inline ``` -- named_struct creates a struct with named fields SELECT named_struct('id', customer_id, 'amount', total_amount) AS info FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 1 -- struct creates a struct with positional fields SELECT struct(customer_id, total_amount, region) AS info FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 1 ``` --- ## Arrays Array columns contain ordered lists of values. Array indexing is **1-based**. ### Index access ``` SELECT customer_id, tags[1] AS first_tag, tags[2] AS second_tag FROM my_namespace.products LIMIT 5 ``` ### Create arrays #### make\_array Creates an array from a list of values. ``` SELECT make_array(1, 2, 3) AS nums FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### string\_to\_array Splits a string into an array by a delimiter. ``` SELECT string_to_array(categories, ',') AS cat_array FROM my_namespace.products WHERE categories IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` #### range Generates an array of integers from start (inclusive) to stop (exclusive). ``` SELECT range(0, 5) AS nums FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### generate\_series Generates an array of integers from start to stop (inclusive). ``` SELECT generate_series(1, 5) AS nums FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### Inspect arrays #### array\_length Returns the number of elements in an array. ``` SELECT customer_id, array_length(tags) AS tag_count FROM my_namespace.products LIMIT 5 ``` #### cardinality Returns the total number of elements in an array. Alias for `array_length`. ``` SELECT customer_id, cardinality(tags) AS tag_count FROM my_namespace.products LIMIT 5 ``` #### empty Returns true if an array has zero elements. ``` SELECT customer_id, empty(tags) AS has_no_tags FROM my_namespace.products LIMIT 5 ``` #### array\_ndims Returns the number of dimensions of an array. ``` SELECT array_ndims(make_array(1, 2, 3)) AS ndims FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_dims Returns the dimensions of an array. ``` SELECT array_dims(make_array(1, 2, 3)) AS dims FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### Search arrays #### array\_has Returns true if an array contains a value. ``` SELECT customer_id, array_has(tags, 'premium') AS is_premium FROM my_namespace.products LIMIT 5 ``` #### array\_has\_all Returns true if the first array contains all elements of the second. ``` SELECT array_has_all(make_array(1, 2, 3, 4), make_array(2, 3)) AS has_all FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_has\_any Returns true if the first array contains any element of the second. ``` SELECT array_has_any(make_array(1, 2, 3), make_array(3, 4, 5)) AS has_any FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_position Returns the position of the first occurrence of a value (1-indexed). Returns 0 if not found. ``` SELECT array_position(make_array('a', 'b', 'c', 'b'), 'b') AS pos FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_positions Returns all positions of a value as an array. ``` SELECT array_positions(make_array(1, 2, 1, 3, 1), 1) AS positions FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### Transform arrays #### array\_sort Sorts array elements. ``` SELECT array_sort(make_array(3, 1, 2)) AS sorted FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_reverse Reverses the order of array elements. ``` SELECT array_reverse(make_array(1, 2, 3)) AS reversed FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_distinct Removes duplicate elements from an array. ``` SELECT array_distinct(make_array(1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3)) AS unique_vals FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### flatten Flattens a nested array by one level. ``` SELECT flatten(make_array(make_array(1, 2), make_array(3, 4))) AS flat FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_slice Returns a slice of an array from a start index to an end index (both inclusive, 1-indexed). ``` SELECT array_slice(make_array(10, 20, 30, 40, 50), 2, 4) AS sliced FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### Modify arrays #### array\_append Appends a value to the end of an array. ``` SELECT array_append(make_array(1, 2, 3), 4) AS appended FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_prepend Prepends a value to the beginning of an array. ``` SELECT array_prepend(0, make_array(1, 2, 3)) AS prepended FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_concat Concatenates two or more arrays. ``` SELECT array_concat(make_array(1, 2), make_array(3, 4)) AS merged FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_remove Removes the first occurrence of a value from an array. ``` SELECT array_remove(make_array(1, 2, 3, 2), 2) AS result FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_remove\_all Removes all occurrences of a value from an array. ``` SELECT array_remove_all(make_array(1, 2, 3, 2, 2), 2) AS result FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_remove\_n Removes the first _n_ occurrences of a value from an array. ``` SELECT array_remove_n(make_array(1, 2, 2, 2, 3), 2, 2) AS result FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_replace Replaces the first occurrence of a value in an array. ``` SELECT array_replace(make_array(1, 2, 3), 2, 99) AS result FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_replace\_n Replaces the first _n_ occurrences of a value in an array. ``` SELECT array_replace_n(make_array(1, 2, 2, 2, 3), 2, 99, 2) AS result FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_replace\_all Replaces all occurrences of a value in an array. ``` SELECT array_replace_all(make_array(1, 2, 3, 2), 2, 99) AS result FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_pop\_back Removes the last element from an array. ``` SELECT array_pop_back(make_array(1, 2, 3)) AS result FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_pop\_front Removes the first element from an array. ``` SELECT array_pop_front(make_array(1, 2, 3)) AS result FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_repeat Repeats a value a given number of times as an array. ``` SELECT array_repeat(region, 3) AS repeated FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_resize Resizes an array to a given length, filling with a default value. ``` SELECT array_resize(make_array(1, 2), 5, 0) AS resized FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### Set operations on arrays #### array\_intersect Returns elements common to both arrays. ``` SELECT array_intersect(make_array(1, 2, 3), make_array(2, 3, 4)) AS common FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_union Returns all unique elements from both arrays. ``` SELECT array_union(make_array(1, 2, 3), make_array(3, 4, 5)) AS merged FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_except Returns elements in the first array that are not in the second. ``` SELECT array_except(make_array(1, 2, 3, 4), make_array(2, 4)) AS diff FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### Aggregate array values #### array\_max Returns the maximum value in an array. ``` SELECT customer_id, array_max(scores) AS max_score FROM my_namespace.products LIMIT 5 ``` #### array\_min Returns the minimum value in an array. ``` SELECT customer_id, array_min(scores) AS min_score FROM my_namespace.products LIMIT 5 ``` #### array\_any\_value Returns the first non-NULL value in an array. ``` SELECT array_any_value(make_array(NULL, 42, NULL)) AS first_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` #### array\_element Returns the element at a given index (1-indexed). Equivalent to bracket-notation access (`arr[idx]`). ``` SELECT array_element(make_array(10, 20, 30), 2) AS second_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### Convert arrays #### array\_to\_string Joins array elements into a string with a separator. ``` SELECT customer_id, array_to_string(tags, ', ') AS tag_list FROM my_namespace.products LIMIT 5 ``` --- ## Maps Map columns store key-value pairs. Use `map_keys`, `map_values`, and `map_extract` to query them. ### map\_keys Returns all keys from a map as an array. ``` SELECT map_keys(metadata) AS keys FROM my_namespace.products LIMIT 5 ``` ### map\_values Returns all values from a map as an array. ``` SELECT map_values(metadata) AS vals FROM my_namespace.products LIMIT 5 ``` ### map\_extract Returns the value for a specific key. ``` SELECT map_extract(metadata, 'source') AS source, map_extract(metadata, 'store_name') AS store FROM my_namespace.products LIMIT 5 ``` ### Creating maps inline ``` SELECT map(make_array('a', 'b'), make_array(1, 2)) AS m FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` --- ## Complete function index ### Struct functions | Function | Description | | --------------------------- | ------------------------------------ | | struct\_col\['field'\] | Bracket notation field access | | get\_field(struct, 'field') | Function-based field access | | named\_struct(k1, v1, ...) | Create struct with named fields | | struct(v1, v2, ...) | Create struct with positional fields | ### Array functions | Function | Description | | ----------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------- | | make\_array(v1, v2, ...) | Create array from values | | string\_to\_array(str, delim) | Split string into array | | range(start, stop) | Generate integer range (exclusive stop) | | generate\_series(start, stop) | Generate integer series (inclusive stop) | | array\_length(arr) | Number of elements | | cardinality(arr) | Number of elements | | empty(arr) | True if empty | | array\_ndims(arr) | Number of dimensions | | array\_dims(arr) | Dimension information | | array\_has(arr, val) | Contains check | | array\_has\_all(arr, arr2) | Contains all check | | array\_has\_any(arr, arr2) | Contains any check | | array\_position(arr, val) | First position of value | | array\_positions(arr, val) | All positions of value | | array\_sort(arr) | Sort elements | | array\_reverse(arr) | Reverse order | | array\_distinct(arr) | Remove duplicates | | flatten(arr) | Flatten one level | | array\_slice(arr, start, end) | Extract sub-array | | array\_append(arr, val) | Append to end | | array\_prepend(val, arr) | Prepend to start | | array\_concat(arr1, arr2) | Concatenate arrays | | array\_remove(arr, val) | Remove first occurrence | | array\_remove\_all(arr, val) | Remove all occurrences | | array\_remove\_n(arr, val, n) | Remove first _n_ occurrences | | array\_replace(arr, old, new) | Replace first occurrence | | array\_replace\_n(arr, old, new, n) | Replace first _n_ occurrences | | array\_replace\_all(arr, old, new) | Replace all occurrences | | array\_pop\_back(arr) | Remove last element | | array\_pop\_front(arr) | Remove first element | | array\_repeat(val, n) | Repeat value _n_ times | | array\_resize(arr, size, default) | Resize with default fill | | array\_intersect(arr1, arr2) | Common elements | | array\_union(arr1, arr2) | Union of elements | | array\_except(arr1, arr2) | Difference of elements | | array\_max(arr) | Maximum value | | array\_min(arr) | Minimum value | | array\_any\_value(arr) | First non-NULL value | | array\_to\_string(arr, delim) | Join elements as string | | array\_element(arr, idx) | Element at index | ### Map functions | Function | Description | | ------------------------- | ------------------------------------ | | map(keys\_arr, vals\_arr) | Create map from key and value arrays | | map\_keys(map) | All keys as array | | map\_values(map) | All values as array | | map\_extract(map, key) | Value for a specific key | ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/sql-reference/","name":"SQL reference"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/sql-reference/complex-types/","name":"Complex types"}}]} ``` --- --- title: Scalar functions description: Reference for all 163 scalar functions supported in R2 SQL, organized by category. image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) ### Tags [ SQL ](https://developers.cloudflare.com/search/?tags=SQL) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/sql-reference/scalar-functions.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # Scalar functions Scalar functions transform individual values and can be used in `SELECT`, `WHERE`, `GROUP BY`, `HAVING`, and `ORDER BY` clauses. --- ## Core functions ### coalesce Returns the first non-NULL argument. ``` SELECT coalesce(department, region, 'unknown') AS first_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 5 ``` ### nullif Returns NULL if both arguments are equal, otherwise returns the first argument. ``` SELECT nullif(department, 'Unknown') AS dept FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 5 ``` ### nvl Returns the second argument if the first is NULL. Alias: `ifnull`. ``` SELECT nvl(department, 'N/A') AS dept FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 5 ``` ### nvl2 Returns the second argument if the first is not NULL, otherwise returns the third. ``` SELECT nvl2(department, 'has_dept', 'no_dept') AS dept_status FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 5 ``` ### greatest Returns the largest value from a list of arguments. ``` SELECT greatest(total_amount, unit_price, quantity) AS max_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### least Returns the smallest value from a list of arguments. ``` SELECT least(total_amount, unit_price, quantity) AS min_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### arrow\_typeof Returns the Arrow data type name of an expression. ``` SELECT arrow_typeof(total_amount) AS amount_type, arrow_typeof(customer_id) AS id_type FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### arrow\_cast Casts an expression to a specific Arrow data type by string name. ``` SELECT arrow_cast(total_amount, 'Float32') AS amount_f32 FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 1 ``` ### named\_struct Creates a struct with named fields from key-value pairs. ``` SELECT named_struct('customer', customer_id, 'amount', total_amount) AS info FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 1 ``` ### get\_field Extracts a field from a struct by name. ``` SELECT get_field(named_struct('customer', customer_id, 'amount', total_amount), 'amount') AS amt FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 1 ``` ### struct Creates a struct with positional fields. Alias: `row`. ``` SELECT struct(customer_id, total_amount, region) AS info FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 1 ``` ### overlay Replaces a substring at a given position. ``` SELECT customer_id, overlay(customer_id PLACING 'XX' FROM 1 FOR 2) AS masked FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 3 ``` --- ## Datetime functions ### now Returns the current timestamp. Aliases: `current_timestamp`. Precision is quantized to 10ms boundaries. ``` SELECT now() AS current_ts FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### current\_date Returns today's date. Alias: `today`. ``` SELECT current_date() AS today_date FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### current\_time Returns the current time. Precision is quantized to 10ms boundaries. ``` SELECT current_time() AS now_time FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### date\_part Extracts a component from a timestamp. Alias: `datepart`. Supported fields: `year`, `month`, `day`, `hour`, `minute`, `second`, `millisecond`, `microsecond`, `week`, `dow`, `doy`, `quarter`, `epoch`. ``` SELECT date_part('hour', timestamp) AS hr, date_part('minute', timestamp) AS mn FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### date\_trunc Truncates a timestamp to a specified unit. Alias: `datetrunc`. Supported units: `year`, `month`, `week`, `day`, `hour`, `minute`, `second`. ``` SELECT date_trunc('day', timestamp) AS day_trunc, COUNT(*) AS cnt FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY date_trunc('day', timestamp) ORDER BY day_trunc LIMIT 5 ``` ### date\_bin Bins a timestamp into fixed-size intervals aligned to an origin. ``` SELECT date_bin(INTERVAL '1 hour', timestamp, '2025-01-01T00:00:00Z') AS hour_bin, COUNT(*) AS cnt FROM my_namespace.sales_data GROUP BY date_bin(INTERVAL '1 hour', timestamp, '2025-01-01T00:00:00Z') ORDER BY hour_bin LIMIT 5 ``` ### from\_unixtime Converts a Unix epoch (seconds) to a timestamp. ``` SELECT from_unixtime(1770000000) AS ts FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### make\_date Constructs a date from year, month, and day components. ``` SELECT make_date(2026, 3, 1) AS d FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### make\_time Constructs a time from hour, minute, and second components. ``` SELECT make_time(14, 30, 0) AS t FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### to\_char Formats a timestamp as a string using strftime format. Alias: `date_format`. ``` SELECT to_char(timestamp, '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M') AS formatted FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### to\_date Parses a date from a string using a format pattern. ``` SELECT to_date('2026-03-01', '%Y-%m-%d') AS d FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### to\_timestamp Parses a timestamp from a string using a format pattern. ``` SELECT to_timestamp('2026-03-01 12:00:00', '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S') AS ts FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### to\_timestamp\_seconds Converts seconds since Unix epoch to a timestamp. ``` SELECT to_timestamp_seconds(1770000000) AS ts FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### to\_timestamp\_millis Converts milliseconds since Unix epoch to a timestamp. ``` SELECT to_timestamp_millis(1770000000000) AS ts FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### to\_timestamp\_micros Converts microseconds since Unix epoch to a timestamp. ``` SELECT to_timestamp_micros(1770000000000000) AS ts FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### to\_timestamp\_nanos Converts nanoseconds since Unix epoch to a timestamp. Large values may overflow. ``` SELECT to_timestamp_nanos(1770000000000000000) AS ts FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### to\_unixtime Converts a timestamp to a Unix epoch (seconds). ``` SELECT to_unixtime(timestamp) AS epoch FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### to\_local\_time Strips timezone information from a timestamp. ``` SELECT to_local_time(timestamp) AS local_ts FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### to\_time Parses a time from a string using a format pattern. ``` SELECT to_time('14:30:00', '%H:%M:%S') AS t FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` --- ## Math functions ### abs Returns the absolute value of a number. ``` SELECT abs(total_amount - 500) AS distance_from_500 FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### ceil Returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to a number. ``` SELECT ceil(total_amount) AS rounded_up FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### floor Returns the largest integer less than or equal to a number. ``` SELECT floor(total_amount) AS rounded_down FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### round Rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places. ``` SELECT round(total_amount, 2) AS rounded FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### trunc Truncates a number to a specified number of decimal places. ``` SELECT trunc(total_amount, 0) AS truncated FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### sqrt Returns the square root of a number. ``` SELECT sqrt(CAST(quantity AS DOUBLE)) AS sqrt_qty FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE quantity IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### cbrt Returns the cube root of a number. ``` SELECT cbrt(CAST(quantity AS DOUBLE)) AS cbrt_qty FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE quantity IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### power Raises a number to a power. Alias: `pow`. ``` SELECT power(total_amount, 2.0) AS amount_squared FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### exp Returns _e_ raised to the given power. ``` SELECT exp(total_amount / 1000.0) AS exp_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### ln Returns the natural logarithm. ``` SELECT ln(total_amount) AS ln_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount > 0 LIMIT 5 ``` ### log Returns the logarithm of a value for a given base. ``` SELECT log(10.0, total_amount) AS log10_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount > 0 LIMIT 5 ``` ### log2 Returns the base-2 logarithm. ``` SELECT log2(total_amount) AS log2_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount > 0 LIMIT 5 ``` ### log10 Returns the base-10 logarithm. ``` SELECT log10(total_amount) AS log10_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount > 0 LIMIT 5 ``` ### Trigonometric functions `sin`, `cos`, `tan`, `asin`, `acos`, `atan`, `atan2`, `cot` ``` SELECT sin(1.0) AS s, cos(1.0) AS c, tan(1.0) AS t, asin(0.5) AS as_val, acos(0.5) AS ac_val, atan(1.0) AS at_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### Hyperbolic functions `sinh`, `cosh`, `tanh`, `asinh`, `acosh`, `atanh` ``` SELECT sinh(1.0) AS sh, cosh(1.0) AS ch, tanh(1.0) AS th FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### degrees Converts radians to degrees. ``` SELECT degrees(pi()) AS full_circle FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### radians Converts degrees to radians. ``` SELECT radians(180.0) AS pi_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### pi Returns the value of pi. ``` SELECT pi() AS pi_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### random Returns a random float between 0 and 1. ``` SELECT random() AS rnd FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### factorial Returns the factorial of a non-negative integer. ``` SELECT factorial(5) AS fact5 FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### gcd Returns the greatest common divisor of two integers. ``` SELECT gcd(12, 8) AS gcd_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### lcm Returns the least common multiple of two integers. ``` SELECT lcm(4, 6) AS lcm_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### signum Returns the sign of a number: -1, 0, or 1. ``` SELECT signum(total_amount - 500) AS sign_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE total_amount IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### isnan Returns true if the value is NaN. ``` SELECT isnan(0.0 / 0.0) AS is_nan FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### iszero Returns true if the value is zero. ``` SELECT iszero(0.0) AS is_zero FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### nanvl Returns the first argument if it is not NaN, otherwise returns the second. ``` SELECT nanvl(0.0 / 0.0, -1.0) AS safe_val FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` --- ## String functions ### ascii Returns the ASCII code of the first character. ``` SELECT customer_id, ascii(customer_id) AS first_code FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 3 ``` ### bit\_length Returns the length of a string in bits. ``` SELECT customer_id, bit_length(customer_id) AS bits FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 3 ``` ### octet\_length Returns the length of a string in bytes. ``` SELECT customer_id, octet_length(customer_id) AS bytes FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 3 ``` ### lower Converts a string to lowercase. ``` SELECT lower(department) AS dept_lower FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 5 ``` ### upper Converts a string to uppercase. ``` SELECT upper(region) AS region_upper FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 5 ``` ### concat Concatenates two or more strings. ``` SELECT concat(department, ' - ', region) AS label FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### concat\_ws Concatenates strings with a separator. ``` SELECT concat_ws('/', region, department) AS path FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### contains Returns true if a string contains a substring. ``` SELECT customer_id, contains(department, 'Sales') AS is_sales FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### starts\_with Returns true if a string starts with a prefix. ``` SELECT customer_id, starts_with(department, 'Eng') AS is_eng FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### ends\_with Returns true if a string ends with a suffix. ``` SELECT customer_id, ends_with(department, 'ing') AS ends_ing FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### btrim Trims characters from both sides of a string. Alias: `trim`. ``` SELECT btrim(' hello ') AS trimmed FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### ltrim Trims characters from the left side of a string. ``` SELECT ltrim(' hello') AS trimmed FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### rtrim Trims characters from the right side of a string. ``` SELECT rtrim('hello ') AS trimmed FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### replace Replaces all occurrences of a substring. ``` SELECT department, replace(department, ' ', '_') AS underscored FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### repeat Repeats a string a given number of times. ``` SELECT repeat(region, 2) AS doubled FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 3 ``` ### split\_part Splits a string by a delimiter and returns the specified part (1-indexed). ``` SELECT customer_id, split_part(customer_id, '-', 1) AS first_part FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE customer_id IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### levenshtein Returns the Levenshtein edit distance between two strings. ``` SELECT department, levenshtein(department, 'Engineering') AS dist FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### chr Returns the character for a given ASCII code. ``` SELECT chr(65) AS letter FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### to\_hex Converts an integer to a hexadecimal string. ``` SELECT to_hex(255) AS hex_ff FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### uuid Generates a random UUID. ``` SELECT uuid() AS new_id FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` --- ## Unicode functions ### character\_length Returns the number of characters in a string. Aliases: `length`, `char_length`. ``` SELECT department, character_length(department) AS len FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### left Returns the leftmost _n_ characters of a string. ``` SELECT department, left(department, 5) AS prefix FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### right Returns the rightmost _n_ characters of a string. ``` SELECT department, right(department, 3) AS suffix FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### substr Returns a substring starting at a position for a given length. Alias: `substring`. ``` SELECT department, substr(department, 1, 8) AS first_eight FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### lpad Left-pads a string to a specified length. ``` SELECT region, lpad(region, 15, '.') AS padded FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 5 ``` ### rpad Right-pads a string to a specified length. ``` SELECT region, rpad(region, 15, '.') AS padded FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 5 ``` ### reverse Reverses a string. ``` SELECT department, reverse(department) AS rev FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### strpos Returns the position of a substring (1-indexed). Aliases: `instr`, `position`. ``` SELECT department, strpos(department, 'a') AS a_pos FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### initcap Capitalizes the first letter of each word. ``` SELECT initcap('hello world') AS capped FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### translate Replaces characters in a string based on a mapping. ``` SELECT department, translate(department, 'aeiou', '12345') AS coded FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### find\_in\_set Returns the position of a string within a comma-separated list. ``` SELECT find_in_set('North', 'South,North,East,West') AS pos FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### substr\_index Returns the substring before the _n_\-th occurrence of a delimiter. Alias: `substring_index`. ``` SELECT customer_id, substr_index(customer_id, '-', 1) AS first_segment FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE customer_id IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` --- ## Regex functions ### regexp\_like Returns true if a string matches a regular expression pattern. ``` SELECT department, regexp_like(department, '^[A-Z]{2}') AS starts_two_caps FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### regexp\_count Returns the number of matches of a pattern in a string. ``` SELECT department, regexp_count(department, '[aeiou]') AS vowels FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### regexp\_replace Replaces matches of a pattern with a replacement string. ``` SELECT department, regexp_replace(department, '[0-9]', '#') AS no_digits FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` ### regexp\_match Returns the first match of a pattern as an array. ``` SELECT department, regexp_match(department, '([A-Z][a-z]+)') AS first_word FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 3 ``` ### regexp\_instr Returns the position of the first match of a pattern. ``` SELECT department, regexp_instr(department, '[0-9]') AS digit_pos FROM my_namespace.sales_data WHERE department IS NOT NULL LIMIT 5 ``` --- ## Crypto functions ### md5 Returns the MD5 hash of a string. ``` SELECT customer_id, md5(customer_id) AS hash FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### sha224 Returns the SHA-224 hash of a string. ``` SELECT sha224(customer_id) AS hash FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### sha256 Returns the SHA-256 hash of a string. ``` SELECT customer_id, sha256(customer_id) AS hash FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### sha384 Returns the SHA-384 hash of a string. ``` SELECT sha384(customer_id) AS hash FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### sha512 Returns the SHA-512 hash of a string. ``` SELECT sha512(customer_id) AS hash FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### digest Returns a hash of a string using a specified algorithm. Supported algorithms: `md5`, `sha224`, `sha256`, `sha384`, `sha512`. ``` SELECT customer_id, digest(customer_id, 'sha256') AS hash FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` --- ## Encoding functions ### encode Encodes binary data to a string. Supported encoding: `base64`. ``` SELECT encode(CAST('hello' AS BYTEA), 'base64') AS b64 FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ### decode Decodes a string to binary data. Supported encoding: `base64`. ``` SELECT decode('aGVsbG8=', 'base64') AS raw FROM my_namespace.sales_data LIMIT 1 ``` ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/sql-reference/","name":"SQL reference"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/sql-reference/scalar-functions/","name":"Scalar functions"}}]} ``` --- --- title: Troubleshooting guide description: This guide covers potential errors and limitations you may encounter when using R2 SQL. R2 SQL is in open beta, and supported functionality will evolve and change over time. image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) ### Tags [ SQL ](https://developers.cloudflare.com/search/?tags=SQL) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/troubleshooting.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # Troubleshooting guide This guide covers potential errors and limitations you may encounter when using R2 SQL. R2 SQL is in open beta, and supported functionality will evolve and change over time. ## Query structure errors ### Missing required clauses **Error**: `expected exactly 1 table in FROM clause` **Problem**: R2 SQL requires a `FROM` clause in your query. ``` -- Invalid - Missing FROM clause SELECT user_id WHERE status = 200; -- Valid SELECT user_id FROM my_namespace.http_requests WHERE status = 200 AND timestamp BETWEEN '2025-09-24T01:00:00Z' AND '2025-09-25T01:00:00Z'; ``` **Solution**: Always include `FROM` with a fully qualified table name (`namespace_name.table_name`). --- ## FROM clause issues ### Multiple tables **Error**: `unsupported feature: JOIN operations are not supported` **Problem**: R2 SQL queries reference exactly one table. JOINs and multiple tables are not supported. ``` -- Invalid - Multiple tables not supported SELECT a.*, b.* FROM my_namespace.table1 a, my_namespace.table2 b WHERE a.id = b.id SELECT * FROM my_namespace.events JOIN my_namespace.users ON events.user_id = users.id -- Valid - Separate queries SELECT * FROM my_namespace.table1 WHERE id IN ('id1', 'id2', 'id3') LIMIT 100 -- Then query the second table separately in your application SELECT * FROM my_namespace.table2 WHERE id IN ('id1', 'id2', 'id3') LIMIT 100 ``` **Solution**: * Denormalize your data by including necessary fields in a single table. * Perform multiple queries and join data in your application. ### Subqueries **Error**: `unsupported feature: subqueries` **Problem**: Subqueries in `FROM`, `WHERE`, and scalar positions are not supported. ``` -- Invalid - Subqueries not supported SELECT * FROM (SELECT user_id FROM my_namespace.events WHERE status = 200) -- Valid - Use direct query with appropriate filters SELECT user_id FROM my_namespace.events WHERE status = 200 LIMIT 100 ``` **Solution**: Flatten your query logic or use multiple sequential queries. --- ## WHERE clause issues ### JSON object filtering **Error**: `unsupported binary operator` or `Error during planning: could not parse compound` **Problem**: JSON functions are not yet implemented. You cannot filter on fields inside JSON objects using JSON path operators. ``` -- Invalid - JSON path operators not supported SELECT * FROM my_namespace.requests WHERE json_data->>'level' = 'error' -- Valid - Filter on the entire JSON column SELECT * FROM my_namespace.logs WHERE json_data IS NOT NULL LIMIT 100 ``` **Solution**: * Denormalize frequently queried JSON fields into separate columns. * Filter on the entire JSON field, and handle parsing in your application. Note Struct columns are supported and can be filtered using bracket notation. Refer to [Complex types](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2-sql/sql-reference/complex-types/) for details. ``` SELECT * FROM my_namespace.products WHERE pricing['price'] > 50 LIMIT 100 ``` --- ## LIMIT clause issues ### Invalid limit values **Error**: `maximum LIMIT is 10000` **Problem**: LIMIT values must be between 1 and 10,000. ``` -- Invalid - Out of range SELECT * FROM my_namespace.events LIMIT 50000 -- Valid SELECT * FROM my_namespace.events LIMIT 10000 ``` **Solution**: Use LIMIT values between 1 and 10,000. ### Pagination attempts **Error**: `unsupported feature: OFFSET clause is not supported` **Problem**: OFFSET is not supported. ``` -- Invalid - Pagination not supported SELECT * FROM my_namespace.events LIMIT 100 OFFSET 200 -- Valid - Use cursor-based pagination with ORDER BY and WHERE -- Page 1 SELECT * FROM my_namespace.events WHERE timestamp >= '2024-01-01' ORDER BY timestamp LIMIT 100 -- Page 2 - Use the last timestamp from the previous page SELECT * FROM my_namespace.events WHERE timestamp > '2024-01-01T10:30:00Z' ORDER BY timestamp LIMIT 100 ``` **Solution**: Implement cursor-based pagination using `ORDER BY` and `WHERE` conditions. --- ## Schema issues ### DDL and DML operations **Error**: `only read-only queries are allowed` **Problem**: R2 SQL is a read-only query engine. DDL and DML statements are not supported. ``` -- Invalid - Schema changes not supported ALTER TABLE my_namespace.events ADD COLUMN new_field STRING UPDATE my_namespace.events SET status = 200 WHERE user_id = '123' CREATE TABLE my_namespace.test (id INT) DROP TABLE my_namespace.events ``` **Solution**: Manage your schema through your data ingestion pipeline and R2 Data Catalog. --- ## Performance optimization ### Query performance issues If your queries are running slowly: 1. **Always include partition (timestamp) filters**: This is the most important optimization. ``` -- Good - Narrows data scan to one day SELECT * FROM my_namespace.events WHERE timestamp BETWEEN '2024-01-01' AND '2024-01-02' LIMIT 100 ``` 2. **Use selective filtering**: Include specific conditions to reduce result sets. ``` -- Good - Multiple filters reduce scanned data SELECT * FROM my_namespace.events WHERE status = 200 AND region = 'US' AND timestamp > '2024-01-01' LIMIT 100 ``` 3. **Select specific columns**: Avoid `SELECT *` when you only need a few fields. ``` -- Good - Only reads the columns you need SELECT user_id, status, timestamp FROM my_namespace.events WHERE timestamp > '2024-01-01' LIMIT 100 ``` 4. **Use EXPLAIN to inspect the execution plan**: Verify that predicate pushdown and file pruning are working. ``` EXPLAIN SELECT user_id, status FROM my_namespace.events WHERE timestamp > '2024-01-01' AND status = 200 ``` 5. **Enable compaction**: Enable compaction in R2 Data Catalog to reduce the number of small files scanned per query. ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/troubleshooting/","name":"Troubleshooting guide"}}]} ``` --- --- title: Tutorials image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/tutorials/index.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # Tutorials ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/tutorials/","name":"Tutorials"}}]} ``` --- --- title: Build an end to end data pipeline description: This tutorial demonstrates how to build a complete data pipeline using Cloudflare Pipelines, R2 Data Catalog, and R2 SQL. image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/tutorials/end-to-end-pipeline.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # Build an end to end data pipeline **Last reviewed:** 6 months ago Learn how to create an end-to-end data pipeline using Cloudflare Pipelines, R2 Data Catalog, and R2 SQL for real-time transaction analysis. In this tutorial, you will learn how to build a complete data pipeline using Cloudflare Pipelines, R2 Data Catalog, and R2 SQL. This also includes a sample Python script that creates and sends financial transaction data to your Pipeline that can be queried by R2 SQL or any Apache Iceberg-compatible query engine. This tutorial demonstrates how to: * Set up R2 Data Catalog to store our transaction events in an Apache Iceberg table * Set up a Cloudflare Pipeline * Create transaction data with fraud patterns to send to your Pipeline * Query your data using R2 SQL for fraud analysis ## Prerequisites 1. Sign up for a [Cloudflare account ↗](https://dash.cloudflare.com/sign-up). 2. Install [Node.js ↗](https://nodejs.org/en/). 3. Install [Python 3.8+ ↗](https://python.org) for the data generation script. Node.js version manager Use a Node version manager like [Volta ↗](https://volta.sh/) or [nvm ↗](https://github.com/nvm-sh/nvm) to avoid permission issues and change Node.js versions. Wrangler requires a Node version of 16.17.0 or later. ## 1\. Set up authentication You will need API tokens to interact with Cloudflare services. 1. In the Cloudflare dashboard, go to the **API tokens** page. [ Go to **Account API tokens** ](https://dash.cloudflare.com/?to=/:account/api-tokens) 2. Select **Create Token**. 3. Select **Get started** next to Create Custom Token. 4. Enter a name for your API token. 5. Under **Permissions**, choose: * **Workers Pipelines** with Read, Send, and Edit permissions * **Workers R2 Data Catalog** with Read and Edit permissions * **Workers R2 SQL** with Read permissions * **Workers R2 Storage** with Read and Edit permissions 6. Optionally, add a TTL to this token. 7. Select **Continue to summary**. 8. Click **Create Token** 9. Note the **Token value**. Export your new token as an environment variable: Terminal window ``` export WRANGLER_R2_SQL_AUTH_TOKEN= #paste your token here ``` If this is your first time using Wrangler, make sure to log in. Terminal window ``` npx wrangler login ``` ## 2\. Create an R2 bucket and enable R2 Data Catalog * [ Wrangler CLI ](#tab-panel-5740) * [ Dashboard ](#tab-panel-5741) Create an R2 bucket: Terminal window ``` npx wrangler r2 bucket create fraud-pipeline ``` 1. In the Cloudflare dashboard, go to the **R2 object storage** page. [ Go to **Overview** ](https://dash.cloudflare.com/?to=/:account/r2/overview) 2. Select **Create bucket**. 3. Enter the bucket name: `fraud-pipeline` 4. Select **Create bucket**. Enable the catalog on your R2 bucket: * [ Wrangler CLI ](#tab-panel-5742) * [ Dashboard ](#tab-panel-5743) Terminal window ``` npx wrangler r2 bucket catalog enable fraud-pipeline ``` When you run this command, take note of the "Warehouse" and "Catalog URI". You will need these later. 1. In the Cloudflare dashboard, go to the **R2 object storage** page. [ Go to **Overview** ](https://dash.cloudflare.com/?to=/:account/r2/overview) 2. Select the bucket: `fraud-pipeline`. 3. Switch to the **Settings** tab, scroll down to **R2 Data Catalog**, and select **Enable**. 4. Once enabled, note the **Catalog URI** and **Warehouse name**. Note Copy the `warehouse` (ACCOUNTID\_BUCKETNAME) and paste it in the `export` below. We will use it later in the tutorial. Terminal window ``` export WAREHOUSE= #Paste your warehouse here ``` ### (Optional) Enable compaction on your R2 Data Catalog R2 Data Catalog can automatically compact tables for you. In production event streaming use cases, it is common to end up with many small files, so it is recommended to enable compaction. Since the tutorial only demonstrates a sample use case, this step is optional. * [ Wrangler CLI ](#tab-panel-5744) * [ Dashboard ](#tab-panel-5745) Terminal window ``` npx wrangler r2 bucket catalog compaction enable fraud-pipeline --token $WRANGLER_R2_SQL_AUTH_TOKEN ``` 1. In the Cloudflare dashboard, go to the **R2 object storage** page. [ Go to **Overview** ](https://dash.cloudflare.com/?to=/:account/r2/overview) 2. Select the bucket: `fraud-pipeline`. 3. Switch to the **Settings** tab, scroll down to **R2 Data Catalog**, click on edit icon, and select **Enable**. 4. You can choose a target file size or leave the default. Click save. ## 3\. Set up the pipeline infrastructure ### 3.1\. Create the Pipeline stream * [ Wrangler CLI ](#tab-panel-5746) * [ Dashboard ](#tab-panel-5747) First, create a schema file called `raw_transactions_schema.json` with the following `json` schema: ``` { "fields": [ { "name": "transaction_id", "type": "string", "required": true }, { "name": "user_id", "type": "int64", "required": true }, { "name": "amount", "type": "float64", "required": false }, { "name": "transaction_timestamp", "type": "string", "required": false }, { "name": "location", "type": "string", "required": false }, { "name": "merchant_category", "type": "string", "required": false }, { "name": "is_fraud", "type": "bool", "required": false } ] } ``` Create a stream to receive incoming fraud detection events: Terminal window ``` npx wrangler pipelines streams create raw_events_stream \ --schema-file raw_transactions_schema.json \ --http-enabled true \ --http-auth false ``` Note Note the **HTTP Ingest Endpoint URL** from the output. This is the endpoint you will use to send data to your pipeline. Terminal window ``` # The http ingest endpoint from the output (see example below) export STREAM_ENDPOINT= #the http ingest endpoint from the output (see example below) ``` The output should look like this: Terminal window ``` 🌀 Creating stream 'raw_events_stream'... ✨ Successfully created stream 'raw_events_stream' with id 'stream_id'. Creation Summary: General: Name: raw_events_stream HTTP Ingest: Enabled: Yes Authentication: Yes Endpoint: https://stream_id.ingest.cloudflare.com CORS Origins: None Input Schema: ┌───────────────────────┬────────┬────────────┬──────────┐ │ Field Name │ Type │ Unit/Items │ Required │ ├───────────────────────┼────────┼────────────┼──────────┤ │ transaction_id │ string │ │ Yes │ ├───────────────────────┼────────┼────────────┼──────────┤ │ user_id │ int64 │ │ Yes │ ├───────────────────────┼────────┼────────────┼──────────┤ │ amount │float64 │ │ No │ ├───────────────────────┼────────┼────────────┼──────────┤ │ transaction_timestamp │ string │ │ No │ ├───────────────────────┼────────┼────────────┼──────────┤ │ location │ string │ │ No │ ├───────────────────────┼────────┼────────────┼──────────┤ │ merchant_category │ string │ │ No │ ├───────────────────────┼────────┼────────────┼──────────┤ │ is_fraud │ bool │ │ No │ └───────────────────────┴────────┴────────────┴──────────┘ ``` ### 3.2\. Create the data sink Create a sink that writes data to your R2 bucket as Apache Iceberg tables: Terminal window ``` npx wrangler pipelines sinks create raw_events_sink \ --type "r2-data-catalog" \ --bucket "fraud-pipeline" \ --roll-interval 30 \ --namespace "fraud_detection" \ --table "transactions" \ --catalog-token $WRANGLER_R2_SQL_AUTH_TOKEN ``` Note This creates a `sink` configuration that will write to the Iceberg table `fraud_detection.transactions` in your R2 Data Catalog every 30 seconds. Pipelines automatically appends an `__ingest_ts` column that is used to partition the table by `DAY`. ### 3.3\. Create the pipeline Connect your stream to your sink with SQL: Terminal window ``` npx wrangler pipelines create raw_events_pipeline \ --sql "INSERT INTO raw_events_sink SELECT * FROM raw_events_stream" ``` 1. In the Cloudflare dashboard, go to **Pipelines** \> **Pipelines**. [ Go to **Pipelines** ](https://dash.cloudflare.com/?to=/:account/pipelines/overview) 2. Select **Create Pipeline**. 3. **Connect to a Stream**: * Pipeline name: `raw_events` * Enable HTTP endpoint for sending data: Enabled * HTTP authentication: Disabled (default) * Select **Next** 4. **Define Input Schema**: * Select **JSON editor** * Copy in the schema: ``` { "fields": [ { "name": "transaction_id", "type": "string", "required": true }, { "name": "user_id", "type": "int64", "required": true }, { "name": "amount", "type": "float64", "required": false }, { "name": "transaction_timestamp", "type": "string", "required": false }, { "name": "location", "type": "string", "required": false }, { "name": "merchant_category", "type": "string", "required": false }, { "name": "is_fraud", "type": "bool", "required": false } ] } ``` * Select **Next** 5. **Define Sink**: * Select your R2 bucket: `fraud-pipeline` * Storage type: **R2 Data Catalog** * Namespace: `fraud_detection` * Table name: `transactions` * **Advanced Settings**: Change **Maximum Time Interval** to `30 seconds` * Select **Next** 6. **Credentials**: * Disable **Automatically create an Account API token for your sink** * Enter **Catalog Token** from step 1 * Select **Next** 7. **Pipeline Definition**: * Leave the default SQL query: ``` INSERT INTO raw_events_sink SELECT * FROM raw_events_stream; ``` * Select **Create Pipeline** 8. After pipeline creation, note the **Stream ID** for the next step. ## 4\. Generate sample fraud detection data Create a Python script to generate realistic transaction data with fraud patterns: fraud\_data\_generator.py ``` import requests import json import uuid import random import time import os from datetime import datetime, timezone, timedelta # Configuration - exported from the prior steps STREAM_ENDPOINT = os.environ["STREAM_ENDPOINT"]# From the stream you created API_TOKEN = os.environ["WRANGLER_R2_SQL_AUTH_TOKEN"] #the same one created earlier EVENTS_TO_SEND = 1000 # Feel free to adjust this def generate_transaction(): """Generate some random transactions with occasional fraud""" # User IDs high_risk_users = [1001, 1002, 1003, 1004, 1005] normal_users = list(range(1006, 2000)) user_id = random.choice(high_risk_users + normal_users) is_high_risk_user = user_id in high_risk_users # Generate amounts if random.random() < 0.05: amount = round(random.uniform(5000, 50000), 2) elif random.random() < 0.03: amount = round(random.uniform(0.01, 1.00), 2) else: amount = round(random.uniform(10, 500), 2) # Locations normal_locations = ["NEW_YORK", "LOS_ANGELES", "CHICAGO", "MIAMI", "SEATTLE", "SAN FRANCISCO"] high_risk_locations = ["UNKNOWN_LOCATION", "VPN_EXIT", "MARS", "BAT_CAVE"] if is_high_risk_user and random.random() < 0.3: location = random.choice(high_risk_locations) else: location = random.choice(normal_locations) # Merchant categories normal_merchants = ["GROCERY", "GAS_STATION", "RESTAURANT", "RETAIL"] high_risk_merchants = ["GAMBLING", "CRYPTO", "MONEY_TRANSFER", "GIFT_CARDS"] if random.random() < 0.1: # 10% high-risk merchants merchant_category = random.choice(high_risk_merchants) else: merchant_category = random.choice(normal_merchants) # Series of checks to either increase fraud score by a certain margin fraud_score = 0 if amount > 2000: fraud_score += 0.4 if amount < 1: fraud_score += 0.3 if location in high_risk_locations: fraud_score += 0.5 if merchant_category in high_risk_merchants: fraud_score += 0.3 if is_high_risk_user: fraud_score += 0.2 # Compare the fraud scores is_fraud = random.random() < min(fraud_score * 0.3, 0.8) # Generate timestamps (some fraud happens at unusual hours) base_time = datetime.now(timezone.utc) if is_fraud and random.random() < 0.4: # 40% of fraud at night hour = random.randint(0, 5) # Late night/early morning transaction_time = base_time.replace(hour=hour) else: transaction_time = base_time - timedelta( hours=random.randint(0, 168) # Last week ) return { "transaction_id": str(uuid.uuid4()), "user_id": user_id, "amount": amount, "transaction_timestamp": transaction_time.isoformat(), "location": location, "merchant_category": merchant_category, "is_fraud": True if is_fraud else False } def send_batch_to_stream(events, batch_size=100): """Send events to Cloudflare Stream in batches""" headers = { "Authorization": f"Bearer {API_TOKEN}", "Content-Type": "application/json" } total_sent = 0 fraud_count = 0 for i in range(0, len(events), batch_size): batch = events[i:i + batch_size] fraud_in_batch = sum(1 for event in batch if event["is_fraud"] == True) try: response = requests.post(STREAM_ENDPOINT, headers=headers, json=batch) if response.status_code in [200, 201]: total_sent += len(batch) fraud_count += fraud_in_batch print(f"Sent batch of {len(batch)} events (Total: {total_sent})") else: print(f"Failed to send batch: {response.status_code} - {response.text}") except Exception as e: print(f"Error sending batch: {e}") time.sleep(0.1) return total_sent, fraud_count def main(): print("Generating fraud detection data...") # Generate events events = [] for i in range(EVENTS_TO_SEND): events.append(generate_transaction()) if (i + 1) % 100 == 0: print(f"Generated {i + 1} events...") fraud_events = sum(1 for event in events if event["is_fraud"] == True) print(f"📊 Generated {len(events)} total events ({fraud_events} fraud, {fraud_events/len(events)*100:.1f}%)") # Send to stream print("Sending data to Pipeline stream...") sent, fraud_sent = send_batch_to_stream(events) print(f"\nComplete!") print(f" Events sent: {sent:,}") print(f" Fraud events: {fraud_sent:,} ({fraud_sent/sent*100:.1f}%)") print(f" Data is now flowing through your pipeline!") if __name__ == "__main__": main() ``` Install the required Python dependency and run the script: Terminal window ``` pip install requests python fraud_data_generator.py ``` ## 5\. Query the data with R2 SQL Now you can analyze your fraud detection data using R2 SQL. Here are some example queries: ### 5.1\. View recent transactions Terminal window ``` npx wrangler r2 sql query "$WAREHOUSE" " SELECT transaction_id, user_id, amount, location, merchant_category, is_fraud, transaction_timestamp FROM fraud_detection.transactions WHERE __ingest_ts > '2025-09-24T01:00:00Z' AND is_fraud = true LIMIT 10" ``` ### 5.2\. Filter the raw transactions into a new table to highlight high-value transactions Create a new sink that will write the filtered data to a new Apache Iceberg table in R2 Data Catalog: Terminal window ``` npx wrangler pipelines sinks create fraud_filter_sink \ --type "r2-data-catalog" \ --bucket "fraud-pipeline" \ --roll-interval 30 \ --namespace "fraud_detection" \ --table "fraud_transactions" \ --catalog-token $WRANGLER_R2_SQL_AUTH_TOKEN ``` Now you will create a new SQL query to process data from the original `raw_events_stream` stream and only write flagged transactions that are over the `amount` of 1,000. Terminal window ``` npx wrangler pipelines create fraud_events_pipeline \ --sql "INSERT INTO fraud_filter_sink SELECT * FROM raw_events_stream WHERE is_fraud=true and amount > 1000" ``` Note It may take a few minutes for the new Pipeline to fully Initialize and start processing the data. Also keep in mind the 30 second `roll-interval`. Query the table and check the results: Terminal window ``` npx wrangler r2 sql query "$WAREHOUSE" " SELECT transaction_id, user_id, amount, location, merchant_category, is_fraud, transaction_timestamp FROM fraud_detection.fraud_transactions LIMIT 10" ``` Also verify that the non-fraudulent events are being filtered out: Terminal window ``` npx wrangler r2 sql query "$WAREHOUSE" " SELECT transaction_id, user_id, amount, location, merchant_category, is_fraud, transaction_timestamp FROM fraud_detection.fraud_transactions WHERE is_fraud = false LIMIT 10" ``` You should see the following output: ``` Query executed successfully with no results ``` ## Conclusion You have successfully built an end to end data pipeline using Cloudflare's data platform. Through this tutorial, you hve learned to: 1. **Use R2 Data Catalog**: Leveraged Apache Iceberg tables for efficient data storage 2. **Set up Cloudflare Pipelines**: Created streams, sinks, and pipelines for data ingestion 3. **Generated sample data**: Created transaction data with some basic fraud patterns 4. **Query your tables with R2 SQL**: Access raw and processed data tables stored in R2 Data Catalog ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/tutorials/","name":"Tutorials"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/tutorials/end-to-end-pipeline/","name":"Build an end to end data pipeline"}}]} ``` --- --- title: Platform image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/platform/index.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # Platform ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/platform/","name":"Platform"}}]} ``` --- --- title: Pricing description: R2 SQL is in open beta and available to any developer with an R2 subscription. image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/platform/pricing.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # Pricing R2 SQL is in open beta and available to any developer with an [R2 subscription](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/pricing/). We are not currently billing for R2 SQL during open beta. However, you will be billed for standard [R2 storage and operations](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2/pricing/) for data accessed by queries. We plan to bill based on the volume of data queried by R2 SQL. We'll provide at least 30 days notice before we make any changes or start charging for R2 SQL usage. ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/platform/","name":"Platform"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/platform/pricing/","name":"Pricing"}}]} ``` --- --- title: Reference image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/reference/index.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # Reference ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/reference/","name":"Reference"}}]} ``` --- --- title: Limitations and best practices description: This page summarizes supported features, limitations, and best practices. image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) ### Tags [ SQL ](https://developers.cloudflare.com/search/?tags=SQL) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/reference/limitations-best-practices.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # Limitations and best practices Note R2 SQL is in open beta. Limitations and best practices will change over time. This page summarizes supported features, limitations, and best practices. ## Quick reference | Feature | Supported | Notes | | ------------------------------------------------------- | --------- | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | SELECT, WHERE, GROUP BY, HAVING, ORDER BY, LIMIT | Yes | | | Column aliases (AS) | Yes | | | Expressions (CASE, CAST, LIKE, BETWEEN, IN, arithmetic) | Yes | Full expression support | | EXPLAIN | Yes | Returns execution plan | | 163 scalar functions | Yes | Math, string, datetime, regex, crypto, array, map, struct | | 33 aggregate functions | Yes | Basic, approximate, statistical, bitwise, boolean, positional | | Approximate aggregates | Yes | approx\_distinct, approx\_median, approx\_percentile\_cont, approx\_top\_k | | Struct / Array / Map column types | Yes | Bracket notation, get\_field(), array functions, map functions | | CTEs (WITH ... AS) | Yes | Single-table only. No JOINs or cross-table references within CTEs. | | JOINs | No | Single-table only | | Subqueries | No | | | Window functions (OVER) | No | | | SELECT DISTINCT | No | Use approx\_distinct | | OFFSET | No | | | UNION / INTERSECT / EXCEPT | No | | | INSERT / UPDATE / DELETE | No | Read-only | | CREATE / DROP / ALTER | No | Read-only | For the full SQL syntax, refer to the [SQL reference](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2-sql/sql-reference/). --- ## Unsupported SQL features | Feature | Error | | ------------------------------------------------------------------ | ------------------------------------------------------ | | JOINs (any type) | unsupported feature: JOIN operations are not supported | | Multi-table CTEs (JOINs or cross-table references within WITH) | Single-table CTEs are supported | | Subqueries (FROM, WHERE, scalar) | unsupported feature: subqueries | | SELECT DISTINCT | unsupported feature: SELECT DISTINCT is not supported | | OFFSET | unsupported feature: OFFSET clause is not supported | | UNION / INTERSECT / EXCEPT | Set operations not supported | | Window functions (OVER) | unsupported feature: window functions (OVER clause) | | INSERT / UPDATE / DELETE | only read-only queries are allowed | | CREATE / DROP / ALTER | only read-only queries are allowed | | UNNEST / PIVOT / UNPIVOT | Not supported | | Wildcard modifiers (ILIKE, EXCLUDE, EXCEPT, REPLACE, RENAME on \*) | Not supported | | LATERAL VIEW / QUALIFY | Not supported | --- ## Unsupported expression patterns | Pattern | Alternative | | ----------------------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | func(DISTINCT ...) on any aggregate | Use approx\_distinct for counting | | PERCENTILE\_CONT / PERCENTILE\_DISC | Use [approx\_percentile\_cont](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2-sql/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/#approx%5Fpercentile%5Fcont) | | MEDIAN | Use [approx\_median](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2-sql/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/#approx%5Fmedian) | | ARRAY\_AGG | No alternative (unsupported for memory safety) | | STRING\_AGG | No alternative (unsupported for memory safety) | | Scalar subqueries (SELECT ... WHERE x = (SELECT ...)) | Not supported | | EXISTS (SELECT ...) | Not supported | | IN (SELECT ...) | Use IN (value1, value2, ...) with a literal list | --- ## Runtime constraints | Constraint | Details | | --------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Single table per query | Queries must reference exactly one table. No JOINs, no subqueries. CTEs may reference a single table. | | Partitioned Iceberg tables only | Unpartitioned tables are not supported. | | Parquet format only | No CSV, JSON, or other formats. | | Read-only | R2 SQL is a query engine, not a database. No writes. | | now() / current\_time() precision | Quantized to 10ms boundaries and forced to UTC. | --- ## Common error codes | Code | Meaning | | ----- | ------------------------------------------------------------------ | | 40003 | Invalid SQL syntax | | 40004 | Invalid query (unsupported feature, unknown column, type mismatch) | | 80001 | Edge service connection failure (retry) | --- ## Best practices 1. Always include time-range filters in `WHERE` to limit data scanned. 2. Use specific column names instead of `SELECT *` for better performance. 3. Use `LIMIT` to control result set size. 4. Use approximate aggregation functions (`approx_distinct`, `approx_median`, `approx_percentile_cont`) instead of exact alternatives on large datasets. 5. Enable compaction in R2 Data Catalog to reduce the number of files scanned per query. 6. Use `EXPLAIN` to inspect the execution plan and verify predicate pushdown. ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/reference/","name":"Reference"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/reference/limitations-best-practices/","name":"Limitations and best practices"}}]} ``` --- --- title: Wrangler commands description: Execute SQL query against R2 Data Catalog image: https://developers.cloudflare.com/dev-products-preview.png --- [Skip to content](#%5Ftop) Was this helpful? YesNo [ Edit page ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/edit/production/src/content/docs/r2-sql/reference/wrangler-commands.mdx) [ Report issue ](https://github.com/cloudflare/cloudflare-docs/issues/new/choose) Copy page # Wrangler commands Note R2 SQL is currently in open beta. Report R2 SQL bugs in [GitHub ↗](https://github.com/cloudflare/workers-sdk/issues/new/choose). R2 SQL expects there to be a [WRANGLER\_R2\_SQL\_AUTH\_TOKEN](https://developers.cloudflare.com/r2-sql/query-data/#authentication) environment variable to be set. ### `r2 sql query` Execute SQL query against R2 Data Catalog * [ npm ](#tab-panel-5737) * [ pnpm ](#tab-panel-5738) * [ yarn ](#tab-panel-5739) Terminal window ``` npx wrangler r2 sql query [WAREHOUSE] [QUERY] ``` Terminal window ``` pnpm wrangler r2 sql query [WAREHOUSE] [QUERY] ``` Terminal window ``` yarn wrangler r2 sql query [WAREHOUSE] [QUERY] ``` * `[WAREHOUSE]` ` string ` required R2 Data Catalog warehouse name * `[QUERY]` ` string ` required The SQL query to execute Global flags * `--v` ` boolean ` alias: --version Show version number * `--cwd` ` string ` Run as if Wrangler was started in the specified directory instead of the current working directory * `--config` ` string ` alias: --c Path to Wrangler configuration file * `--env` ` string ` alias: --e Environment to use for operations, and for selecting .env and .dev.vars files * `--env-file` ` string ` Path to an .env file to load - can be specified multiple times - values from earlier files are overridden by values in later files * `--experimental-provision` ` boolean ` aliases: --x-provision default: true Experimental: Enable automatic resource provisioning * `--experimental-auto-create` ` boolean ` alias: --x-auto-create default: true Automatically provision draft bindings with new resources ```json {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"/directory/","name":"Directory"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/","name":"R2 SQL"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/reference/","name":"Reference"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"item":{"@id":"/r2-sql/reference/wrangler-commands/","name":"Wrangler commands"}}]} ```